Paper short abstract:

The success of feminist discourses of development and their incorporation into international development agendas, largely in the guise of ‘gender mainstreaming’ should be celebrated, but with some caution. This paper explores the ownership and control of gender mainstreaming and asks to what extent these discourses have been appropriated by neo-colonial politics.

Paper long abstract:

This paper provides a critical introduction to this panel. It initially explores the emergence and growth of gender mainstreaming in global development and suggests that the success of international feminist movements and analyses in forcing gender onto the development agenda should be celebrated, but with some caution. The second part of this paper then outlines a number of reasons for caution. This is a critical period in the 'mainstreaming' debate, and without continued vigilance, gender mainstreaming could become - or, more critically, remain as - a purely mechanistic, semantic 'reclothing' of WID as GAD (Pearson, 2005:160). As I have argued elsewhere (Clisby, 2005:32), it is all too easy to provide a gendered discourse at the policy level, but with little concomitant 'engendering' of development processes. Moreover, questions need to be raised as to the extent to which the requirement for 'gender mainstreaming' in international development discourse has become an extension of a neo-liberal/neo-colonial project to control and 'civilise' developing economies. Is a putative concern for gender equality in development being used as another means to distinguish between the modern, civilised 'One' and the colonial, traditional 'Other'? Through raising and beginning to explore these questions, this paper provides an introductory framework for the subsequent panel papers.

Paper short abstract:

This paper analyses the appropriation of Bougainville women during a complex civil war, peace process, and the current aid/development phase in ways that serve ideological, political and economic interests of outside agencies but undermines the matrilineal structure of their society.

Paper long abstract:

My paper will discuss some of the ways feminist discourse was articulated on Bougainville during, and after the secessionist war that took place on the island between 1989 and 2000. Inspired by feminist discourse, NGOs have appropriated Bougainville women into newly organized spheres of influence (as moral agents, peacemakers or victims) that have in turn the potential to distort the matrilineal structure of their society which is the true source of the women’s power and authority. The feminist analysis of male-female relationships is at odds with the way in which these relationships are traditionally negotiated in Bougainville society and expressed in their central significance in the mutual construction of kinship, clans and authority on the island. Gender mainstreaming has become a major platform for social and political change managed by outside agencies in what is now the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, Papua New Guinea. However, there is often little understanding of the traditional power of women by political and economic advisers which frequently results in a tokenism which falls far short of their central position at the very heart of Bougainville culture. The problem for feminist anthropology is the recognition that many contemporary Bougainville women now advance their own, and their family’s interests through and with such agencies, along with education and business enterprise. The contradiction is in the potential for a dissembling of the traditional obligations that both privilege and constrain Bougainville women in a society built on matrilineal principles where women were secure as “mothers of the land”.

Paper long abstract:

This research explores what kinds of expectations and ideals Maori and Pacific peoples (Maori, Samoans, Tongans and Nuieans) in New Zealand have about their couple relationships. The intercultural as well as interdisciplinary nature of the research informed my decision to apply several research methodologies including participant observation techniques and in-depth interviews with 51 participants. Findings indicate that the majority of participants perceive that honesty, loyalty, trust, openness, and a good sex life was essential for a good relationship. They stressed that fulfilling obligations towards the extended family and mutual respect are important for them. The notion that one has to be willing to work on the relationship was also a dominant theme. The research also investigates how integration into a modern society has impacted on the expectations Maori and Pacific peoples have about their intimate relationships. Most women mentioned that they now wanted equality in their relationships and expected their partners to communicate with them on an emotional level.

Paper short abstract:

In spite of recognising the value of women’s labour in Andean llama herding, developers fail to acknowledge women as expert herders, since their expertise is based on watching animals rather than handling them. Such misrecognition allows outsiders and men to appropriate female expertise.

Paper long abstract:

An NGO working in Bolivia draws attention in its literature to the potential of women's labour as a resource for the commercialisation of llama-herding. The statement is an effort by the NGO to incorporate gender into its development initiative. This paper looks at the implementation of the livestock husbandry project and at its implications for indigenous Andean women. It notes that, in spite of the NGO's rhetorical attention to the value of women, its expert vets and agronomists direct their efforts largely towards men in the communities concerned.

The discrepancy between promise and practice, regarding gender, is partly due to a failure by scientifically-trained experts to appreciate the nature of animal-human relations in Andean communities and to recognise women's expertise with llamas. Western and scientific expertise with animals relies on tactility - handling animals - and domination. Andeans attribute a higher degree of agency to animals, care for them rather than dominate them and watch over them rather than handle them. Watching over animals is a daily task often performed by women, who thereby acquire a detailed knowledge of individual animals, their habits and states of health.

NGO experts teach Andeans to handle animals. Those receptive to such training are often men who come to profit politically from prestigious involvement with the NGO. The paper considers how attachment to Western ways of knowing and models of expertise leads developers, who initially attempt to mainstream gender, to appropriate women's roles as llama experts, and allows men to dominate new political openings.